Yanomamo

ENVIRONMENT

Yanomamo, also spelled as Yanomami, are a group of approximately 22,000 indigenous people living in the Amazon Rainforest in South America, particularly in Venezuela and Brazil. Roughly 9,000 live in Brazil while 12-13,000 live in Venezuela. The Amazon rainforest is located near the equator and has a tropical climate, also known as equatorial climate. It is hot and humid throughout the year, averaging 81 degrees fahrenheit. There really isn't any distinction between their seasons. Mainly because the temperature difference during the seasons isn't significant. There is a greater temperature difference between day and night, a difference of 35-40 degrees. It is not as hot as people imagine, it rarely reaches 91.5 degrees. Though it is very humid. It rains almost all year with rainy season ranging from 60-180 inches of rain and non rainy season 30-100 inches. As you can see, the difference is not significant. Living in the Amazon rainforest, their setting is definitely rural. They are isolated within the rain forest but since the Amazon is the largest rain forest they are beginning to encounter more trouble, such as deforestation. Also, with the influx of miners, they have had more competition for resources. The Yanomamo are horticulturalist, approximately 80-90% of their diet is cultivated from gardens. Their main plant is plantains, a banana containing high levels of starch and little sugar. They don't rely on fish but when the rivers overflow they eat the fish that overflow and dry. The biggest environmental stress the found in the Amazon rainforest is the humidity. To the unaccustomed it gives a feeling of oppressiveness and lack of air. 

ADAPTATIONS 

Yanomami, and other people living in a rainforest, sweat less than those that don't live there. This physical adaptation is due to high humidity in rain forests, which prevents sweat from evaporating. Since it cannot evaporate, sweating would be a poor way for people to cool off. Therefore, populations living in rain forest humidity have adapted to sweating less. Another physical adaptation for the Yanomami is higher levels of melanin in their skin pigment to help block the harmful rays of the sun. This adaptation is beneficial for the hot climate throughout the year in the Amazon rain forest. The Yanomami must also adapt culturally to live in the Amazons. Because they depend on the rain forest, they make sure they don't overuse it. They practice shifting cultivation, that is, they frequently move to avoid overusing areas and completely destroying the soil. Their dress is also one of their cultural adaptations. It is warm throughout the year so they typically wear minimal clothing to stay cool. They have adapted to the constant rain in their environment. Their homes, called shabono, have roofs made from raw materials found nearby. The roofs are susceptible to heavy rains. Therefore, they change the roofs every 1-2 years. 

LANGUAGE

The Yanomami speak various dialects within the language family Yanomaman. The language with the most speakers, approximately 17,600, is called Yanomamo. The three other languages within the family are Yanam, Sanuma, and Yanomami. There language is unique to the English language because it consists of seven basic vowels while English consists of eight basic vowels. Also, in the Yanomaman language, there is a distinction between oral and nasal vowels. Recently few Yanomamo have formed written languages. The fact that only few have written languages demostrates how isolated the Yanomami live from the rest of the world. For the most part, their vocabulary is very large because they rely on oral tradition rather than written tradition. They possess a formal and informal dialect, each used accordingly based on the event. 

GENDER ROLES

There are only two specific genders within the Yanomamo culture, male and female. Male gender roles consist of heavy work, such as hunting and killing large game. Men will also take up women roles if they become too dangerous. For instance, while women work in gardens, the men are responsible for clearing their own gardens by using slash and burn technique. Women do most of the child bearing. There are more men than women Yanomami, making it extremely important for women to have lots of children. Gender are strictly defined within the Yanomami culture. A main reason for this could be the shortage of women within the group. Because of the shortage, the main role for the women is child bearing. Not to say that they don't have chores. Their chores, such as gardening, are chores that can be done simultaneously while taking care of children. There chores are also less dangerous than the chores the men have. Typically there is no crossover of gender roles, their different roles are clearly defined. Women get beat by their husbands if they do not perform their gender roles properly. If men don't perform their gender roles, they can risk being seen unattractive by the women. This can be really bad since their is a shortage of women. Children learn gender roles early on by their mothers. At a young age they must help their mothers with chores, especially the daughters. Once the boys are old enough they go with their father to begin doing the heavier work. At a young age, the daughters learn that they are expected to bear and raise many children. They help their mothers with chores up until the time of menstruation, when their womanhood begins. Biology has an influence on the Yanomami gender roles. Males, which are stronger, do the heavier work. While women, which have the ability to give birth, mainly focus on child bearing and raising. Yanomamo infanticide is high, especially for women. Females born with defects are often killed at birth, especially a defect that could intervene with their role of child bearing. For this reason, I believe that the protagonist in "The Blessed Curse" would not have been accepted within the Yanomamo culture, instead they would have killed the child. 

SUBSISTENCE 

The Yanomami are horticulturists, hunters, and fishers. But 80-90% of their diet is cultivated from gardens. Their traditional mode of subsistence is slash and burn agriculture, which is done by men. Their staple fruit is a plantain. Their food is available year round, though they will have to relocate their gardens when the soil is destroyed. There is a division of labor within the Yanomami, this division is based on their sex. The men are in charge of the heavy and dangerous work in maintaining gardens. Most importantly, they are responsible for the slash and burn technique of their gardens. While women are in charge of cultivating the gardens. Children are expected to help their mothers. The Yanomami nutritional health is adequate. Their diet is very low in salt, making their blood pressure the lowest of any demographic group. Their diet can also be low in protein, since 80-90% of their diet is cultivated from gardens. This could lead to poor muscular development and is also a reason why good hunting skills is highly important for a man's reputation and honor. Their diet is not really dependent on any item that is difficult to obtain. Though, in other areas is would be difficult or impossible to obtain year round. 

ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

The Yanomami do not produce any surplus food. One of the reasons is because they make sure they don't destroy the land and only use the land for the food they need. Typically, specialization of labor occurs when groups begin producing surplus food because it is more efficient. Since Yanomami people do not produce surplus food they don't have specialization of labor. Instead they just have division of labor, though everyone does participate. There is redistribution of wealth amongst the Yanomami, mainly the redistribution of meat. They also exchange resources that might be scarce is other villages. Their economy is entirely non-monetary. Instead, their economy is a part of their everyday subsistence activities that are embedded in their social relations. The Yanomami do engage in trade. Their trading practices are important reciprocal features in their alliance systems. Trading has enabled the Yanomami to maintain peaceful ties with each other villages. Though, it can also cause tension and conflict when trades don't go as planned. 

MARRIAGE 

Bilateral Cross Cousin Marriage

The Yanomamo practice polygamous marriages, though there are also some monogamous marriages because of the shortage of women. They practice bilateral cross cousin marriage. In this system, marriage partners are doubly related to one another as martilateral and patrilateral cross cousins. That is, in each generation, a man marries a woman who is both his matrilateral cross cousin and patrilateral cross cousin. Most marriage partners are determined by the daughters parents. The Yanomamo do not have marriage ceremonies. Because of their system of bilateral cross cousin marriage, village endogamy is established. There are some instances where girls marry off to people from other villages. This typically occurs as a marriage alliance during warfare. After a woman is married off, the husband must pay a wife price to the brides family. He must pay this price because he is taking her away from her family. Females are valued more as marriage partners, especially because of the shortage of females. The Yanomami try to minimize village exogamy, one of the reasons they practice bilateral cross cousin marriage. Though they do allow it. Typically, smaller villages depend on exogamy to build alliances with neighboring villages. The Yanomamo live in villages usually consisting of their children and extended families. Their practice of bilateral cross cousin marriage allows family members to stay in the same village, close to family members. The entire village lives under a common roof called the shabono. Under the shabono, divisions exist between individual spaces. Homosexual relations between men are allowed, though it is prohibited for women to engage in homosexual relations. If a woman is caught with another women doing sexual acts, she will be brutally punished, sometimes even beat to death.  

KINSHIP

The Yanomamo practice an unillineal (patrilineal) decent system. This follows their belief that women are subordinate to men. They do not ignore matrilineal decent lines, especially because cousins marry each other, they just place a bigger emphasis on patrilineal lines. The father, or naya, posses the most authority within the family. They often beat their wives to maintain their power. There aren't any inheritance patterns for the Yanomami. The only thing that might be considered an inheritance is someones garden. Though gardens are normally shared within families so it might not be considered an inheritance. They follow the Iroquois classificatory pattern. A major feature of this system is the application of bifurcate merging rule through which father's brother and father are merged in a single term, haya, and distinguished from mother's brother, soaya. Also, the mother's sister is merged with mother, naya, and distinguised from father's sister, yesiya. In other words, they make distinctions between father's and mother's sides of the family. This is important for them because they practice bilateral cross cousin marriage. 

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

The Yanomamo are egalitarian. Most horticultural societies are egalitarian. But all members within the society do not have equal status. Women are always inferior to men. Women do not participate in warfare. Women also have restrictions that men do not, such as engaging in homosexual affairs. The fact that all members in the society do not have equal status might contradict what egalitarian means. Overall they do live egalitarian lives. After all, there is minimal distinctions made between the Yanomamo. For example, they all live under the same shabono. They all participate in daily activities, based on gender roles. There aren't any major distinctions as those found in stratified societies. Such as our society where we can clearly see the difference between the wealthy and the poor. 

POLITICAL STRUCTURE

Political power, or leadership, is determined by the village's relationship with other villages. It is also largely the result of kinship and marriage patterns. The leaders are men from the largest kinship groups within the village. They are responsible for very important roles, such as clearing the gardens. Individuals are chosen as leaders if they display good leadership qualities. The role of a leader is not given directly to the descendent of a former leader. Since the Yanomamo have no formal laws, the rules regarding killing and the consequences for it are not explicitly laid out as they are in Western cultures. Instead they have customs and general rules about proper behavior. Conflicts emerge when these customs are broken but unlike Western cultures, the Yanomamo people must take action on their own, without any governmental assistance. They, along with their close kin, must fight for themselves. An example is a chest pounding duel. This is commonly done to settle disputes within the shabono. It consists of four hits back and forth from each side until each man has received a blow. When disputes don't get settled, they go on to the next level, such as a club duel. 

THE ROLE OF VIOLENCE 

Violence is used to settle disputes such as wife affairs and food thefts. This particular type of violence is called club duel. This fight follows certain Yanomamo rituals. Usually, one man will challenge another to hit him in the head with the club. Then the man will deliver a counter blow. This continues until one of the men bleeds. Once this happens, the others will enter the fight taking sides. Thus settling any disputes. This form of violence plays a role in serving justice and keeping order within the villages. There are positive affects of this violence because it helps maintain order. This affects are viewed positively by the Yanomami, it is part of their culture. Another form of violence for the  Yanomamo are raids. They raid villages they have disputes with until that village abandon their site and move elsewhere. These raids normally occur after other form of setting disputes did not work. For example, if there was a club duel over stolen food and that didn't settle anything, then raiding takes place. Raidings are not seen negatively by the Yanomami. Often during raids women from the village being raided are stolen. This can have a negative affect on the raided village but a positive one of the village raiding. Once again this is part of their justice system that helps maintain order. 

RELIGION

The Yanomamo religion is very complex. They practice the religion of animism. Meaning that they believe the plants and animals around them have animal spirits. It is related to the larger branch of shamanism. They use a hallucinogen called yopo to manipulate the spirits in the animals and plants to go into their own body, giving the spiritual power. They do focus on a god called Omama. This god blessed them with the forest, trees, and animals. They believe that animals were once humans but became animals because they did bad things. They believe that the universe consists of four parallel layers. The layer they consider earth is called hei ka missi. An important practice within their religion is the ability for men to become shamans. Shamans are needed for multiple things, such as healing sickness, help Yanomami in need, or send demons away. The process of becoming a shaman is difficulte. They must fast from food and abstain from sex. This religion is extremely important to their culture. The importance they place on animals and plants helps them protect their land because they don't overuse or destroy it. Without this religion the Yanomami would need to change parts of their lifestyles in order to continue to function. 

ART

A form of artwork for the Yanomami is body art. Women paint their skin and dye their cloth. During special occasions the men will also decorate their bodies with paint. These practices of body art allows for bonding and strengthens social ties for the Yanomami. They do not use any musical instruments but do sing often. One very important time they sing is when they communicate with the spirit world. During this ritual, the Yanomamo also dance while communicating with the spirit world. Both music and performance are used as religious art. Singing and dancing enhances their experience while communicating with the spirit world. The use of art within their religious practices demonstrates how important and prominent religion is for the Yanomami. The Yanomami women often practice a form of art in weaving baskets. They weave them with certain patterns symboling their village. 

CULTURAL CHANGE

Recently the Yanomamo have been affected by miners. Miners invaded their territory with support of the federal and local government policies. This has had negative affects for the Yanomami because their territory, which they care so much for, is being destroyed. This contact with the outside world has also brought many diseases the  Yanomami are vulnerable to. Though it also has a positive impact because it has introduced them to medicine they were not familiar with. It is still too soon to tell whether the Yanomami culture will be destroyed or thrive. They strongly believe in their lifestyles. Though history has proved that contact with outsiders often destroy cultural identity, especially for indigenous people. Mining and deforestation would probably be the defining factors whether the Yanomami culture thrives of diminishes. This culture does not play an important role in the modern world. They are very isolated in the Amazon rainforest. It was not until recently that the modern world learned about the Yanomamo culture. They could have an influence on the modern world if people follow their steps and protect the environment. Of course, this could only be done by the modern world. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

http://www1.broward.edu/~hsorkin/Lib-Arts/Projects/Fall2002/Hottinger/culture.html

http://www.unique-southamerica-travel-experience.com/amazon-rainforest-climate.html

http://www.mbgnet.net/sets/rforest/explore/people.htm

http://remoteculturesandenvirons.rwithcare.com/yano/subsistance.html

http://www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/anthropology/tutor/case_studies/yanomamo/

http://faculty.rcc.edu/griffing/EHC2Ch6.pdf

http://ksuanth.wetpaint.com/page/Yanomamo+Art

http://www.aaanet.org/committees/cfhr/rptyano7.htm

Art as a Culture

FUNCTIONS OF EARLY ART:

There are numerous interpretations to the cave paintings. I believe that the paintings were a form of ritual for the animals and the hunting seasons. One reason I believe this hypothesis is because the animals are all painted in groups, probably painted before each season. 

I believe that there were more animals than people in the paintings because the paintings were done as a form of ritual for the animals and hunting season. There was no need to add lots of people to the paintings. 

If my interpretation of the paintings is correct, the paintings tell us that the cave dwellers were spiritual. They didn't purposely create art like modern artists do. Also, they painted in a cave, not somewhere easily visible which indicates that their purpose wasn't to create art for everyone to see. Rather it was a way for them to ritualize the animals in hopes of a good hunting season. They were very artistic but I don't think creating art was their intentions. 

They went through lots of difficulties painting in these caves. They were always in danger while in the caves. As the interactive video shows, there are some parts in the cave that get really narrow. Also, it must have been really dark in there. They were painting on rock which cannot be easy. They used several methods of painting, depending on the rock surface and color that they wanted. 

One function of this art could be the one I already mentioned. That is, a form of ritual for the animals and hunting seasons. A second function could be a way they document past hunting successes. A third function could be them merely painting the animals they see around them. 

COMMONALITIES IN FUNCTION:

Once again, if my interpretation is correct, common forms of modern art could be religious paintings. One image I used to see in my old neighborhood was a painting of the Virgin Mary. It was often painted on the business buildings. I am almost sure that the owners painted it so the wall wouldn't get tagged on. It definitely worked, you might see graffiti on the wall right next to the painting but never on the painting of the Virgin Mary. In both cases, the people created art. But they did so with other intentions in mind. The early humans did it to have a successful hunting season. The modern humans did it so they wouldn't have to continuously paint over the graffiti on their walls. 

INTRODUCE US TO YOUR FAVORITE ART: 

David, Oath of the Horatii, 1784  

Paintings can serve an endless amount of functions. Depending on the time in which it is painted and on the painter and the message he is trying to convey. They can communicate anything they want. Also, paintings don't always present a message that the painter wants to make. Artists are often commissioned and paint whatever they are told to paint. The painting above is a history painting used to promote patriotism and sacrifice. 

There is definitely a complete culture for what is known as "classical art". Though I do not think there is a complete culture in painting as a whole. There is such a variety in paintings that there are a lot of cultures within it. For the culture of classical art, most people probably attended college where they learned certain language to describe the paintings. They often travel to museums and art galleries where they learn more.

This art form benefits society because it provides us with history. It gives us an insight on how people felt during the time the painting was made. For example, the famous painting Scream by Edvard Munch gives us an insight on how people felt during imperialism and the age of anxiety. It can definitely have negative affects because it is a form of art that can be used to brain wash people. The art form by itself cannot be detrimental. 

Edvard Munch, Scream, 1893

Politics and Violence

1. Since the Yanomamo have no formal laws, the rules regarding killing and the consequences for it are not explicitly laid out as they are in Western cultures. Instead they have customs and general rules about proper behavior. Conflicts emerge when these customs are broken but unlike Western cultures, the Yanomamo people must take action on their own, without any governmental assistance. They, along with their close kin, must fight for themselves. 
2. Most fights amongst the Yanomamo begin over sexual issues. Once the fight begins the village splits into two new groups. Each group lead by two prestigious men of opposing sides. This occurs because the Yanomamo population seek revenge for previous killings. Thus, it is a continuing cycle of revenge killing amongst the Yanomamo population. 
3. By obtaining the status of unakais, men earn prestige and are not seen as easy targets for future raids. By earning that title, their close kin are also safer, namely his wife. Non-unokais would benefit by never killing someone who was once part of their kin. A man would choose to become an unokais so that he wouldn't be seen as weak. Also, the more aggressive you are, the less kin you will lose in the end. Since you will have reputation for fast retaliation which will scare off future attacks. 
4. A) Political Structure - For the Yanomamo, revenge killings are their form of political structure. Though they have no written laws for breaking their customs, all the Yanomamo population knows that once they break the customs they are in danger of encountering revenge killings. B) Social Status/Social Organization - Groups within the Yanomamo culture that retaliate fast and effectively during revenge killings earn good reputations. Other groups within the culture will not attack them as easily, knowing that the group will retaliate with precision. Therefore, a group can earn high social statuses through effective revenge killings. C) Kinship - Because revenge killings continuously splits the village into separate groups, eventually the men begin fighting other men who were  once their kin. D) Marriage and Reproduction - Men with the title of unokais are likely to have more women and thus more children. Also, a man who has a good reputation will have less problems with other men trying to seduce or hurt his women. 
5. Although most people are against killing, they also agree that killing in certain circumstances is permissible. That is why it is important to have laws against killing. For example, in the Yanomamo culture revenge killings are permissible and they never end because there is no law putting an end to the killings. If there were laws and a justice system similar to ours, at least in theory, the killers would be sent to prison and end the continuous cycle of revenge killings. Without laws, people could find excuses to do something that most people should not want to do. 

Maria Araceli Lua

1. I interviewed my mother, Maria Araceli Lua (maiden name Maria Araceli Huerta). She was born in Guadalajara, Mexico on December 9, 1969. She grew up in a working class family migrated to the USA at age 3. Although she grew up in the United States she identifies herself as being Mexican with Mexican culture. 
2. I think that my thoughts during the interview would have been completely different had I not been interviewing my mother. I was definitely comfortable throughout the entire interview. I never experienced awkwardness. I actually laughed a few times because my mom had trouble remembering close relative's names. Had I not been interviewing my mom I would of never known that she forgot to mention a relative. I wouldn't have felt as comfortable as I did and I would of definitely been more nervous. 
3. When my interviewee was young, she migrated with her family to the United States. Her mother is the only person who didn't stay in Mexico (that is, all of her mother's siblings still live in Mexico). Her father is an only child. Therefore Maria would only see her extended family when she went to Mexico for vacation. She was very close to her parents and siblings. Thus I wouldn't say there is an emphasis on either maternal or paternal lines. The biggest age difference between her siblings is about 7 years so they don't really have different attitudes towards each other. Maria talks to her parents, grandparents, aunts, and uncles, which are all older, with more respect than she would with younger family members. The older generations tend to be larger but the newer generations tend to be smaller. Her father is an only child but that is because his parents were never in a relationship, they just had a child together. Had they been together, they would of probably had a large family since that was common back then. There are no ethnic differences, as of now everyone in the family is Mexican. 
4. I do know my relatives from both my mom and dad's side of the family well. I do socialize equally with them, besides the two aunts on my dad's side that live in Mexico. In my family my mom has the most influence in decisions made. Mainly because my dad is more passive and since  they are the parents she ends up making the decisions. Family members that have been part of the family through marriage for a long time don't get treated differently. Although, the newly added members of the family do get treated differently. Yes there are different attitudes towards family members based upon gender. Women in the family are supposed to be good daughters, sisters, wives, and mothers. While the men are treated like macho men. Family members are content with the women in our family being receptionists or a job of that sort. While the men are expected to have job, mainly laborious, that make good money. I have learned that my family fits the stereotypical Mexican family. We are a big family in which most members still believe in gender norms. I realized that our family has been split apart in several different generations because of our locations. My grandmother left her family when she came to the United States. I also have two aunts on my fathers side that left the US to go back to Mexico. If we all lived closer together, my family would seem much larger. 

Subsistence and Economy

Part 1:

1. Benefits
• Hunting and gathering 
• Societies that rely on hunting and gathering are normally small, resulting in less struggle to find food to feed everyone
• They only hunt and gather food to feed themselves, they don't have to struggle trying to have a surplus of food
• They do not have to depend on any outside sources besides nature to find food  
• Agriculture 
• Allows for societies to grow bigger because a surplus of food can be available 
• They can settle in one place because they don't have to constantly move to follow hunting seasons 
• Trade is made more possible with agricultural societies
2. Disadvantages 
• Hunting and gathering
• Because hunter gatherers have to constantly move, it is impossible to settle in one place
• Since land is very important for them, oftentimes they must fight for it
• Since hunter gather populations are often small, it is more difficult for them to fight of larger populations when fighting for land. 
• Agriculture 
• Because they typically grow surplus amount of food, by the time they eat it is might not be fresh 
• Typically, agricultural populations are big so if a harvest goes bad a lot of people are affected by it. Consequently, it is harder to repair from a bad harvest. 
• In order to keep the harvest going smoothly, a lot of time and effort must be involved
3. Hunting and gathering provides a healthier diet because they typically eat fresh food soon after it is hunted. Also, the crops they gather don't have pesticides that crops would have in an agricultural harvest.
4. Early human populations probably transitioned to agriculture instead of hunting and gathering because it allows for the population to settle down in one place. In doing this, it takes away the hassle of moving from place to place. By staying in one place, they probably felt that their land was secure and it would be hard for other populations to fight for it. Once they settled down, it was possible for them to have more stuff because they didn't have to deal with traveling with it. Once they had a surplus of food or other things, they probably began trading with others. 

Part 2:

1. The statement points out that in order to trade, a surplus must be available. Without a surplus amount, nobody would really consider trading since the stuff they have is stuff they need. In order to begin thinking about trade, surplus must be at hand. 
2. One social benefit of trade is the possibility of sharing regional resources, such as wheat, that enhance a populations well being. Another social benefit is the communication (of different peoples) that arises through trade. 
3. A negative social result of trade would be greed. Another negative social result is that trade opens up the possibility for certain people to gain power. 
4. Agriculture facilitated the possibility of surplus amounts of food. With that surplus, people realized they didn't need it all and began trading it for other things they did not have. 

Language

Part 1:

• I found this experiment difficult and really frustrating.  I performed the experiment with my boyfriend which might of made the experiment a bit easier than if I had done it with a stranger because we know each other pretty well. There were some gestures I did while trying to communicate with him that he understood immediately. Also, some of the stuff we were trying to communicate were things we spoke about before. So, I definitely think it would of been harder had I performed this experiment with a complete stranger. 
• My partner also got frustrated. He knew about the experiment so he just kept trying but I feel if i would of performed the experiment without him knowing he might of just given up and stayed quiet until I spoke. He definitely changed the way he communicated with my by asking more questions since he realized it was merely impossible for me to begin a conversation. 
• If my partner and I represented two different cultures I believe his culture, the one that uses symbolic language, has the advantage in communicating complex ideas. I could hardly keep a conversation going, let alone communicate complex ideas. The speaking culture might see the non symbolic language culture as abnormal and dumb. Deaf and mute people in our culture encounter these troubles throughout there life. During high school the sign language program held deaf pizza night at a local pizza parlor. Most people there were deaf or mute and I found myself refraining from speaking while there, even though I could've spoken to a few friends there who were able to speak. Also, when I attempted to communicate with some of the deaf people I found myself engaging in simpler conversations, even though they could've probably held more complex conversations. 

Part 2:

• I was able to complete the full 15 minutes but a few times I found myself breaking the rules. For example, I nodded my head or lifted my eyebrows. As much as I tried not to, it still happened. I guess it is because I am so used to it. 
• My partner didn't seem as frustrated as part 1 of the experiment. Though, he did seem pretty bored. My voice was monotone and it made him feel as if I didn't care about our conversation or anything he had to say. 
• Non speech language techniques are extremely important in communicating. It livens up our conversations and helps both partners engage in the conversation. It is possible communicating without these techniques but I believe that without them we wouldn't enjoy communicating as much. 
• Blind people cannot read body language. Being able to read body language enables us to understand the persons we are communicating with more effectively. For example, sometimes it is difficult to tell when people are being sarcastic, but often there body language tells it all. During an extremely hot day it might benefit one to not be able to read body language. At least for me, when I can tell somebody is hot I get hotter myself. Had I not been able to read there body language and realize they were hot, I might of avoided feeling hotter.

Part 3:

• If I had been allowed to use written language in part 1 of the experiment, it would of been much easier. I would of been able to write what I wanted to say and also use body language to fully engage in the conversation. It might of still been frustrating because it takes long having to write things out. Maybe I would have used my computer and typed everything out which would of been much faster. 
• Written language provides everyone within the culture with a tool to communicate. As long as the people learn it they can communicate with other strangers who also know the language. 
• Written language has enabled us to communicate with others globally. With the use of written language people are able to learn it in a country far from the country that speaks it. Also, being able to write in another language enables people from different parts of the world to communicate through the internet. It allows us to spread information to other cultures around the world with ease. If there weren't written languages, in order to communicate with other cultures we would need a translator who is fluent in both languages. But with written language, as long as one person takes the trouble to learn it well and document the meanings of words, others can simply translate one language to another, even if they don't understand the other language completely.  

Environmental Adaptations

ZULU:

1. South Africa is a subtropical country known for its sunshine. Average yearly rainfall there is about 464 mm. During the summer the average temperature is 86 degrees Fahrenheit. Winter temperatures vary throughout South Africa. In KwaZulu-Natal coast, where the majority of Zulu's live, winter days are sunny with very, if any, rain. 
2. A Zulu physical adaptation is dark skin color (as seen in the picture on the left). Ultraviolet radiation normally decreases during the winter but since winters in South Africa are warm, Zulus encounter ultraviolet radiation year round. Because of this, their bodies have adapted by producing more melanin. Thus, protecting their skin from sunburn. 
3. A Zulu cultural adaptation is their dress. The warm climates they undergo year round encouraged them to dress with very little clothes. As seen in the picture on the right, the women are wearing minimal clothing. 
4. I would choose African because they are from South Africa and typically Africans are dark skinned. 
5. I think physical and cultural adaptations explain more than race because race is based on socially constructed norms while physical and cultural adaptations are based on science and actual facts. 

ANDEAN INDIANS:

                 

1. The high altitude Andes mountains has tropical climates and dry seasons in the winter. The average summer temperature is 70 degrees Fahrenheit while during the winter it's 50 degrees. There is not much rainfall. 
2. A physical adaptation for the Andean Indians is also their skin color. They are not as dark as the people from the Zulu culture because they have lower temperatures in the Andes mountains than in South Africa. (Refer to image on the left) 
3. Similar to the Zulu culture, the Andean Indians adapted their own culturally based dress. They wear hats to protect their face from the sun, yet they have a good amount of clothing on because temperatures are not extremely hot and can actually get cold. (Refer to image on the right) 
4. I would choose South American because of their home location, the Andes Mountains. 
5. Once again, physical and cultural adaptations are more explanatory than describing based on race. I chose their race based on their location, merely boundaries that are socially constructed.

http://www.southafrica.info/travel/advice/climate.htm

http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_climate.htm

Nacirema...

1. Pessimist - "The fundamental belief underlying the whole system appears to be that the human body is ugly and that its natural tendency is to debility and disease." I agree that the natural tendency of the body is to debility and disease but I feel that the Nacirema culture is pessimistic because it doesn't admire the beauty of a human body. 
2. Inequality - "Poorer families imitate the rich by applying pottery plaques to their shrine walls." This quote demonstrates that inequality exists amongst the Nacirema tribe. The poorer families attempt to blur the inequality that exists between them and their richer neighbors by placing plaques to their shrine walls. 
3. Dentist - "the people seek out a holy-mouth-man once or twice a year." Similar to our yearly dentist check ups. Their holy-mouth-man is the same as our dentist. 
4. Hygiene - "Bathing and excretory acts are performed only in the secrecy of the household shrine, where they are ritualized as part of the body-rites." The Nacirema perform these acts at home. They seem to care a lot about their hygiene because they even have shrines where they bathe. 
5. Surgery - "Still other rites are used to make women's breasts larger if they are small, and smaller if they are large." These rites must be similar to the breast augmentation and breast reduction. The Nacirema tribe must be technologically advanced to perform these "rites". 

Part B:

1. As an American, I feel that the choice of words describing our culture are on point. There is definitely a lot of inequality in America. Also, as Americans we are constantly trying to stay young and avoid aging, often depending of surgical procedures. 
2. I think "hygiene" is biased. In order for me to say a culture has good hygiene I need to compare it to other cultures, particularly my own. Therefore, I have a biased opinion on what I believe good hygiene is. I don't think any of the other words were based on bias judgement. 
3. I cannot think of another word to replace "hygiene" with that would not be biased. Maybe I can say "relatively good hygiene" instead. 
4. It is important to describe another culture in a manner as free from cultural bias as possible because if we don't it is impossible to actually understand the culture. I do not think it is possible to completely avoid cultural bias as a cultural anthropologist because everyone has values, and although some people learn to be tolerant of others cultures, in a sense those people are still being bias because they feel that they have to be "tolerant" of other cultures. Indicating that one culture is better than another.